Stops and affricates
2.1 Introduction
Differences of stops are made in: airstreams, laryngeal setting, VOT, velic closure/opening.
Two ways of analyzing stop system: number of series and places.
2.2 Stop series
Series is a set of stops which share in a general sense the same manner.
Numbers of stop series in UPSID -- table 2.1
--All languages have at least 1 series, and 2 series is the most common.
Table 2.1 Number of stop series |
||||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
No. of languages |
50 |
162 |
76 |
25 |
2 |
2 |
% of languages |
15.8% |
51.1% |
24.0% |
7.9% |
0.6% |
0.6% |
¡@
Frequency of stop series in UPSID -- table 2.2
--Plain voiceless stop series has the highest frequency.
Table 2.2 Frequency of stop series |
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¡@ |
Number of languages |
Percent |
Plain voiceless |
291 |
91.8% |
Plain voiced |
212 |
66.9% |
Aspirated voiceless |
91 |
28.7% |
Voiceless ejective |
52 |
16.4% |
Voiced implosive |
35 |
11.0% |
Prenasalized voiced |
18 |
5.6% |
Breathy voiced |
7 |
2.2% |
Laryngealized voiced |
6 |
1.9% |
Laryngealized voiceless |
3 |
0.9% |
Preaspirated voiceless |
2 |
0.6% |
Voiceless with breathy release |
2 |
0.6% |
Postnasalized voiced |
1 |
0.3% |
Prevoiced ejective |
1 |
0.3% |
Voiceless implosive |
1 |
0.3% |
Pattern of stop series, see appendix A.
2.3 Summary of analysis of stop systems.
Basic component of stop series include plain voiceless, and priority of expanding ones is VOT contrast,
then glottalic series, then further VOT contrast.
2.4 & 2.5 Stop system by place: two kinds of analysis
Stop alone
(1) Number of places for stops -- table 2.4
Table 2.4 Frequency of sizes of stop systems by places |
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2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
|
No. of languages |
2 |
171 |
103 |
35 |
6 |
% of sample |
0.3% |
53.9% |
32.5% |
11.0% |
1.9% |
--Most languages utilize 3 places of articulation.
(2) Number of languages with stops at given places -- table 2.5
-- 3 commonest place of articulation: bilabial, dental or alveolar, velar.
-- Extra additions of place of articulation: retroflex, palatal, and alveolar.
Table 2.5 Number of languages with stops at given places |
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¡@ |
Bilabial |
Dental or alveolar |
Palatal or palatal-alveolar |
Retroflex |
Velar |
Uvular |
Labial-velar |
No. of languages |
314 |
316 |
59 |
36 |
315 |
47 |
20 |
% of languages |
99.1% |
99.7% |
18.6% |
11.4% |
99.4% |
14.8% |
6.3% |
b. Stop and affricate
(1) Number of places for stops and/or affricate -- table 2.6
--Most languages utilize 4 places of articulation.
Table 2.6 Number of places for stops and/or affricates |
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2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
|
No. of languages |
2 |
62 |
139 |
87 |
25 |
2 |
% of languages |
0.6% |
19.6% |
43.8% |
27.4% |
7.9% |
0.6% |
¡@
(2) Extra additions of place of articulation: palatal-alveolar affricate.
2.6 Voicing and place of articulation for plosives
Bilabial place is disfavored among voiceless plosives (p<k<*t);
Velar is disfavored among voiced plosives (g<*d<b).
The tendency of devoicing voiced plosives, less bilabial.
Area and genetic account for the /p/ and /g/ gap.
2.7 Secondary articulation with plosives
Labialization: plosive>velar>uvular
Palatalization: labial> dental or alveolar stop>velar
Velarization and pharyngealization are rare.
No secondary articulation in retroflex, palatal, palato-alveolar or labial-velar.
2.8 Affricates
Most common affricates are dental or alveolar sibilant.